鈥楳others, Mistresses and Maids: Women in the Acteson Manuscript鈥
Written by Jessica Barton
滨苍迟谤辞诲耻肠迟颈辞苍鈥
Eighteenth-century ghost stories typically contain strong religious undertones.鈥疓hosts could appear as a revelation,鈥痶o prove鈥疓od鈥檚 power, or, as the manuscript presents, to offer a warning鈥痑nd to urge repentance. The manuscript鈥檚鈥religious context鈥痠s therefore central to its meaning, especially due to the Methodist messages鈥痠t contains鈥痳elated to 1780s Cork.鈥
Yet, the involvement of the supernatural was not always a strategic religious device. Ghost stories often reveal a lot about contemporary鈥痝ender dynamics.鈥疶he existence of tension and conflict鈥痠n these stories鈥痠s an area for鈥痑nalysis, allowing us to鈥痠nterrogate how鈥痑nd why鈥痚xpected norms and structures were challenged鈥痠n鈥痓oth the early modern household and鈥痺ider society.鈥疶he manuscript is no exception: there鈥痠s an鈥痷nhappy鈥痬arriage,鈥痑dultery,鈥痑s well as鈥痯lans for murder.鈥疊y examining the鈥痯ortrayal of 鈥楾he Repentant Mistress鈥 (Sarah Harris), 鈥楾he Scheming Maid鈥 (Cadwallader鈥檚 second mistress), and 鈥楾he Loyal Wife鈥 (Mary Creed), this article seeks to analyse the manuscript鈥檚鈥痯resentation of gender.鈥疎ach of the female figures in the story are unique, revealing a new dimension to the manuscript besides its immediate religious significance.
鈥楾he Repentant鈥 Mistress鈥欌
In early 1784, Cadwallader becomes acquainted鈥痺ith Sarah Harris, the wife of a man who owns a porter house. Sarah, who is described as 鈥榓 pretty kind of a young woman鈥,鈥痙evelops a relationship with Cadwallader which continues for two years.鈥疍espite the teachings of the Church, adulterous affairs were a frequent occurrence in eighteenth-century Ireland.鈥疢any men had鈥痵ex outside of marriage with a 鈥榤istress鈥 or even held鈥痗oncubines鈥痠n鈥痶he house.1 Interestingly, the manuscript鈥痠nsists that Sarah, 鈥榯ill now鈥, was a 鈥榤odest woman鈥欌痶aken鈥痮ver鈥痓y鈥疌adwallader鈥檚 鈥榲ile鈥痯urposes鈥.鈥疕ere, the male figure is attributed鈥痵ignificant鈥痓lame for the adulterous鈥痑nd 鈥榗riminal connection鈥.鈥疌adwallader鈥痙id not鈥痵uccumb to鈥痑dultery due to Sarah鈥檚 seduction,鈥痓ut鈥痓y his own immorality鈥痠nstead.鈥
This portrayal鈥痬ay be viewed as a tool in the redemption narrative of the ghost story, whereby Cadwallader鈥檚 wrongdoings are鈥痯art of his journey to absolution. However, the clear condemnation of Cadwallader鈥檚 behaviour offers a thoughtful challenge to dominant beliefs about鈥痶he role of women鈥痠n鈥痑dulterous relationships.2 When Sarah falls ill, she鈥痳epents her actions鈥痑s she is 鈥榮eized with horrible fears of death and Hell鈥 and ends the affair. Just like Cadwallader, Sarah鈥檚 redemption is secured by her forgiveness and鈥痶he willingness of 鈥楯esus to save鈥.鈥
Yet, beyond her death Sarah plays a more鈥痗entral鈥痳ole in the story. In fact, it is Sarah who鈥痳eturns鈥痶hree times鈥痶o haunt Cadwallader鈥痑s a ghost and pleads鈥痜or his repentance.鈥疍uring her first appearance,鈥疭arah 鈥榖eheld a beautiful form鈥, her 鈥榗ountenance serene鈥,鈥痑nd is dressed in white.鈥疕er presence is portrayed as heavenly and pure, as she is free of sin. Despite this positive description,鈥痶he manuscript mentions that Sarah has 鈥榓 look of holy displeasure鈥, recognising her anger at Cadwallader鈥檚 immoral behaviour.鈥疎ach time Sarah returns, her warnings reflect her increasing frustration and annoyance as Cadwallader continues to ignore her pleas.鈥疭arah鈥檚 words are direct and stern: 鈥榶ou are going on to鈥痙estruction鈥, 鈥榲engeance鈥痺ill seize you鈥, 鈥榶our damnation is sure鈥.
During the encounters with Cadwallader, Sarah maintains control of the dynamic and severely frightens him. Therefore,鈥疭arah, as the key supernatural figure in the story,鈥痯lays an integral role鈥痠n initiating the process of Cadwallader鈥檚 redemption. Critically, while Cadwallader relies on those around him, Sarah can mobilise her own redemption.
'The Scheming鈥 Maid鈥欌
Another important female figure in the manuscript is the maid,鈥痺ho lived in the household of Mary Creed鈥檚 father. The maid is unnamed in the manuscript, reflecting her subservient status and marginalisation. Nevertheless, her inclusion in the story signifies the impact of her presence and the threat she posed to societal stability. Following Sarah鈥檚 death, Cadwallader 鈥榳as sober and much reformed for a season鈥, but soon returns to his adulterous ways and鈥痓egins an affair with the maid.鈥疶he maid is a鈥痗onniving鈥痜igure鈥痺ho is described as a 鈥榲ile woman鈥欌痑nd a 鈥榳icked strumpet鈥.鈥
Affairs between the head of the household and servants were recurrent throughout the early modern period. Female servants often aimed to rise above their station and displace the mistress of the household.3 There was thus frequent tension between maids and the household鈥檚 mistress. In another ghost story from 1650,鈥疨riscilla Beauty,鈥痶he mistress of an alehouse in Essex, returns as a ghost to haunt her former servant, Susan Lay, who has replaced her鈥痯osition.4鈥疞aura Gowing interprets this supernatural encounter as a 鈥榬eminder of the intimate transgressions in which that family鈥檚 members were entwined鈥.5 Similarly, the present manuscript seeks to highlight the鈥痸arious misdemeanours that occur behind closed doors in鈥痶he household.鈥
The maid鈥檚 actions also suggest that she has deliberate intentions with Cadwallader.鈥疉s the relationship between the maid and Cadwallader develops, the maid becomes鈥痬ore irritated.鈥疭kilfully, she devises an oath with Cadwallader, demanding that the affair will no longer continue until 鈥榖y some method he had鈥痬urder鈥檇鈥痟is wife and made her mistress of his house鈥.鈥疶his illustrates the maid鈥檚鈥痙evious plotting and the great lengths she will go to elevate her position, namely sexual promiscuity and murder. The maid is even able to obtain poison for Cadwallader鈥痵o that he can put it in his wife鈥檚 tea.
The hierarchical structure of the household was critical to maintaining order in Irish society.6 Hence, various problems arise when the maid seeks to challenge this structure. Accordingly,鈥痶he manuscript is鈥痚specially critical of the maid, as her actions鈥痶hreaten to disrupt the stability of the household and, by implication, wider society.鈥疍espite this, the maid鈥檚 plotting is noteworthy. It displays a degree of female independence and determination to disrupt contemporary鈥痭orms and expectations.鈥
鈥楾he Loyal Wife鈥欌
Cadwallader鈥檚 wife, Mary Creed, is described as 鈥榓 very prudent,鈥痠ndustrious,鈥痗areful woman鈥.鈥疶hese descriptors鈥痵ignify鈥疢ary鈥檚 resilience鈥痠n her marriage,鈥痙espite the abusive鈥痑nd careless鈥痑ctions of her husband.鈥疉s a mother to 鈥榝ive small children鈥, Mary鈥檚 patience is particularly striking.鈥疘ndeed, as is noted in the manuscript, Mary bore the 鈥榓fflictions鈥 caused by Cadwallader鈥檚 鈥榳ickedness鈥 with 鈥榓mazing patience and fortitude鈥.鈥疭uch wickedness included the throwing of鈥痥nives, and it is mentioned that one only just missed Mary.鈥
Marital violence was common in Ireland during the eighteenth century.鈥疶he male head of the household was primarily responsible for retaining order and this frequently equated to physical correction, mainly directed at spouses.7 The fact that the manuscript explicitly details and鈥痙enounces Cadwallader鈥檚 actions is significant, as it provides a record of his misdeeds. Instances of sexual immorality and marital tension were of interest throughout society. Newspapers reporting on criminal cases of adultery and oral or written sources of popular culture helped to distribute this information to the public.8 The manuscript, although only addressed to a single recipient, was likely to have been circulated more widely and thus helped to spread the story.
The ghost story鈥檚 emphasis on Cadwallader鈥檚 redemption suggests that Mary鈥檚 abusive experiences are marginalised. Yet, as Gowing鈥痗onvincingly鈥痑rgues, ghost stories often operated 鈥榯o speak for lost causes, expose forgotten stories, or protest against misdeeds in high鈥痯laces鈥.9 It is therefore crucial鈥痶o view the present manuscript as providing a sort of safeguard for Mary, ensuring that her mistreatment is recognised and that Cadwallader鈥檚 wicked behaviour is not repeated. In fact, Mary鈥檚 loyalty is pivotal to her husband鈥檚 redemption. Not only does she鈥痟elp burn the poison her husband intended to use against her and comforts鈥痟im, but she also prays for鈥疌adwallader鈥檚 redemption.鈥
鈥
The manuscript thus offers a valuable insight into the variety of female roles and expectations in eighteenth-century Ireland. While elements of these figures were typical of the age, the supernatural conflict within the story highlights non-conformity and wider societal instability.
Endnotes
- Maria Luddy and Mary O鈥橠owd, Marriage in Ireland, 1660-1925 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), p. 278.
- Laura Gowing, 鈥楾he Haunting of Susan Lay: Servants and Mistresses in Seventeenth–Century England鈥, Gender & History, 14 (2002), 183-201 (p. 192).
- Ibid., p. 192.
- Ibid., pp. 183, 184.
- Ibid., p. 199.
- Sarah-Anne Buckley, 鈥榃omen, Men and the Family, c.1730-c.1880鈥, in The Cambridge History of Ireland, Volume 3: 1730-1880, ed. by James Kelly (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), pp. 231-254 (p. 233).
- Luddy and O鈥橠owd, Marriage in Ireland, p. 314.
- Ibid., p. 282.
- Gowing, 鈥楾he Haunting of Susan Lay鈥, p. 197.
叠颈产濒颈辞驳谤补辫丑测鈥
Buckley, Sarah-Anne, 鈥榃omen, Men and the Family, c.1730-c.1880鈥, in鈥The Cambridge鈥疕istory of Ireland, Volume 3: 1730-1880, ed. by James Kelly (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), pp. 231-254.
Gowing, Laura,鈥楾he Haunting of Susan Lay: Servants and Mistresses in Seventeenth–Century England鈥,鈥Gender &鈥疕istory, 14 (2002), 183-201鈥
[Hester Ann Rogers?] to Elizabeth Ritchie, c. 1788, Methodist Archive and Research Centre, John Rylands University Library, Manchester, Fletcher-Tooth Collection, MAM/FL/33/4
鈥Luddy, Maria, and Mary O鈥橠owd,鈥Marriage in Ireland, 1660-1925鈥(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020)
鈥Pearson, Jacqueline, 鈥樷淭hen she asked it, what were its鈥疭isters鈥痭ames?鈥: Reading between the Lines in Seventeenth-Century Pamphlets of the Supernatural鈥,鈥Seventeenth Century, 28 (2013), 63-78鈥
Sangha, Laura,鈥楾he Social, Personal, and Spiritual Dynamics of Ghost Stories in Early Modern England鈥,鈥The Historical Journal,鈥63.2 (2020), 339-59鈥
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Woodcut from 'The Beautiful Apparition' (1786), Broadside Ballads Online.